

China Mechanical Engineering ›› 2026, Vol. 37 ›› Issue (10): 2492-2501.DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1004-132X.2026.10.012
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MA Feng1,2(
), WANG Hailei1,3, HUANG Shunhu1,3, ZHANG Hua2,3
Received:2025-10-17
Online:2026-10-25
Published:2026-11-10
Contact:
MA Feng
马峰1,2(
), 王海磊1,3, 黄顺虎1,3, 张华2,3
通讯作者:
马峰
作者简介:马峰*(通信作者),男,1989年生,副教授、博士研究生导师。研究方向为绿色低碳制造、资源高值化利用。E-mail:MF0425@163.com。
基金资助:CLC Number:
MA Feng, WANG Hailei, HUANG Shunhu, ZHANG Hua. Degradation Modeling and Remaining Useful Life Prediction of Retired Power Batteries Considering Energy Storage Conditions[J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2026, 37(10): 2492-2501.
马峰, 王海磊, 黄顺虎, 张华. 考虑储能工况的退役动力电池退化建模与剩余寿命预测[J]. 中国机械工程, 2026, 37(10): 2492-2501.
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URL: https://www.cmemo.org.cn/EN/10.3969/j.issn.1004-132X.2026.10.012
| 优化变量 | 类型 | 搜索范围 |
|---|---|---|
| 学习率η | 连续 | [0.001,0.01] |
| GRU隐藏层单元数H | 整数 | [50,100] |
| L2正则化系数λ | 连续 | [0.0001,0.1] |
Tab.1 Key hyperparameters optimized by WOA and their search ranges
| 优化变量 | 类型 | 搜索范围 |
|---|---|---|
| 学习率η | 连续 | [0.001,0.01] |
| GRU隐藏层单元数H | 整数 | [50,100] |
| L2正则化系数λ | 连续 | [0.0001,0.1] |
| 阶段 | 数据来源 | 划分规则 | 循环数 | 窗口参数 (L,s) | 样本数 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 训练 | CS35+CS36+CS38 | 全寿命循环 | 2728 | (1, 1) | 2728 |
| 验证 | CS37 | 前 80% 循环(按时间顺序) | 755 | (1, 1) | 755 |
| 测试 | CS37 | 后20%循环(按时间顺序) | 189 | (1, 1) | 189 |
Tab.3 Dataset split
| 阶段 | 数据来源 | 划分规则 | 循环数 | 窗口参数 (L,s) | 样本数 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 训练 | CS35+CS36+CS38 | 全寿命循环 | 2728 | (1, 1) | 2728 |
| 验证 | CS37 | 前 80% 循环(按时间顺序) | 755 | (1, 1) | 755 |
| 测试 | CS37 | 后20%循环(按时间顺序) | 189 | (1, 1) | 189 |
| 模型 | 输入(L×F) | CNN配置(filters/层数) | RNN(类型/层数/单元) | Attention | Dropout | 输出 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| WOA-CNN-GRU-SA | 1×3 | 16→32(2层) | GRU/2层/h* | Self-Attention×2 | 0.01 | 1 |
| WOA-CNN-LSTM-SA | 1×3 | 16→32(2层) | LSTM/2层/h* | Self-Attention×2 | 0.01 | 1 |
| WOA-CNN-GRU | 1×3 | 16→32(2层) | GRU/2层/h* | 无 | 0.01 | 1 |
| WOA-CNN-LSTM | 1×3 | 16→32(2层) | LSTM/2层/h* | 无 | 0.01 | 1 |
| CNN-GRU | 1×3 | 16→32(2层) | GRU/2层/h0 | 无 | 0.01 | 1 |
| CNN-LSTM | 1×3 | 16→32(2层) | LSTM/2层/h0 | 无 | 0.01 | 1 |
Tab.4 Baseline model parameter settings
| 模型 | 输入(L×F) | CNN配置(filters/层数) | RNN(类型/层数/单元) | Attention | Dropout | 输出 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| WOA-CNN-GRU-SA | 1×3 | 16→32(2层) | GRU/2层/h* | Self-Attention×2 | 0.01 | 1 |
| WOA-CNN-LSTM-SA | 1×3 | 16→32(2层) | LSTM/2层/h* | Self-Attention×2 | 0.01 | 1 |
| WOA-CNN-GRU | 1×3 | 16→32(2层) | GRU/2层/h* | 无 | 0.01 | 1 |
| WOA-CNN-LSTM | 1×3 | 16→32(2层) | LSTM/2层/h* | 无 | 0.01 | 1 |
| CNN-GRU | 1×3 | 16→32(2层) | GRU/2层/h0 | 无 | 0.01 | 1 |
| CNN-LSTM | 1×3 | 16→32(2层) | LSTM/2层/h0 | 无 | 0.01 | 1 |
| Layer | Activation function | Output data shape |
|---|---|---|
| Input | N/A | None,1,3 |
| CNN1(Convolutional 2D) | Relu | None,1,16 |
| CNN2(Convolutional 2D) | Relu | None,1,32 |
| Pooling Layer | N/A | None,1,32 |
| Flatten Layer | N/A | None,32 |
| GRU Layer 1 | Tanh | None,1,50 |
| Self-Attention Layer 1 | N/A | None,1,50 |
| Fully Connected Layer 1 | N/A | None,1,1 |
| Dropout Layer | N/A | None,1,1 |
| GRU Layer 2 | Tanh | None,50 |
| Self-Attention Layer 2 | N/A | None,50 |
| Fully Connected Layer 2 | N/A | None,1 |
| Output | N/A | None,1 |
Tab.5 Detailed neural network architecture
| Layer | Activation function | Output data shape |
|---|---|---|
| Input | N/A | None,1,3 |
| CNN1(Convolutional 2D) | Relu | None,1,16 |
| CNN2(Convolutional 2D) | Relu | None,1,32 |
| Pooling Layer | N/A | None,1,32 |
| Flatten Layer | N/A | None,32 |
| GRU Layer 1 | Tanh | None,1,50 |
| Self-Attention Layer 1 | N/A | None,1,50 |
| Fully Connected Layer 1 | N/A | None,1,1 |
| Dropout Layer | N/A | None,1,1 |
| GRU Layer 2 | Tanh | None,50 |
| Self-Attention Layer 2 | N/A | None,50 |
| Fully Connected Layer 2 | N/A | None,1 |
| Output | N/A | None,1 |
| 模型 | RMSE/% | MSE/% | MAE/% | R2/% |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| WOA-CNN-GRU-SA | 0.809 27±0.006 48 | 0.006 549 4±0.000 105 0 | 0.554 40±0.005 94 | 99.840±0.007 |
| WOA-CNN-LSTM-SA | 0.902 70±0.007 90 | 0.008 149 1±0.000 142 7 | 0.640 10±0.007 25 | 99.802±0.010 |
| WOA-CNN-GRU | 1.388 73±0.012 81 | 0.019 286 9±0.000 355 8 | 0.878 83±0.010 41 | 99.532±0.016 |
| WOA-CNN-LSTM | 2.138 90±0.019 04 | 0.045 751 3±0.000 813 8 | 1.530 23±0.024 38 | 98.880±0.040 |
| CNN-GRU | 1.472 20±0.014 36 | 0.021 675 1±0.000 423 1 | 1.080 57±0.014 36 | 99.472±0.021 |
| CNN-LSTM | 2.764 80±0.028 75 | 0.076 446 7±0.001 588 4 | 2.014 53±0.029 21 | 98.148±0.066 |
Tab.2 Prediction results of each algorithm
| 模型 | RMSE/% | MSE/% | MAE/% | R2/% |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| WOA-CNN-GRU-SA | 0.809 27±0.006 48 | 0.006 549 4±0.000 105 0 | 0.554 40±0.005 94 | 99.840±0.007 |
| WOA-CNN-LSTM-SA | 0.902 70±0.007 90 | 0.008 149 1±0.000 142 7 | 0.640 10±0.007 25 | 99.802±0.010 |
| WOA-CNN-GRU | 1.388 73±0.012 81 | 0.019 286 9±0.000 355 8 | 0.878 83±0.010 41 | 99.532±0.016 |
| WOA-CNN-LSTM | 2.138 90±0.019 04 | 0.045 751 3±0.000 813 8 | 1.530 23±0.024 38 | 98.880±0.040 |
| CNN-GRU | 1.472 20±0.014 36 | 0.021 675 1±0.000 423 1 | 1.080 57±0.014 36 | 99.472±0.021 |
| CNN-LSTM | 2.764 80±0.028 75 | 0.076 446 7±0.001 588 4 | 2.014 53±0.029 21 | 98.148±0.066 |
| 数据集 | RMSE/% | MSE/% | MAE/% | R2/% |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 训练集 | 0.792 30 | 0.006 277 4 | 0.543 10 | 99.852 |
| 验证集 | 0.807 90 | 0.006 527 0 | 0.552 80 | 99.842 |
| 测试集 | 0.809 27 | 0.006 549 4 | 0.554 40 | 99.840 |
Tab.7 Comparison of prediction performance on the training, validation, and test sets
| 数据集 | RMSE/% | MSE/% | MAE/% | R2/% |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 训练集 | 0.792 30 | 0.006 277 4 | 0.543 10 | 99.852 |
| 验证集 | 0.807 90 | 0.006 527 0 | 0.552 80 | 99.842 |
| 测试集 | 0.809 27 | 0.006 549 4 | 0.554 40 | 99.840 |
| 起点 | 真实RUL | 预测RUL | AE | RE | MAPE | RMSE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 213 | 247 | 225 | 22 | 0.0145 | 0.0058 | 0.0065 |
| 246 | 207 | 210 | 3 | 0.0145 | 0.0060 | 0.0067 |
| 314 | 124 | 124 | 0 | 0 | 0.0065 | 0.0070 |
Tab.8 RUL prediction results and error metrics under different starting points
| 起点 | 真实RUL | 预测RUL | AE | RE | MAPE | RMSE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 213 | 247 | 225 | 22 | 0.0145 | 0.0058 | 0.0065 |
| 246 | 207 | 210 | 3 | 0.0145 | 0.0060 | 0.0067 |
| 314 | 124 | 124 | 0 | 0 | 0.0065 | 0.0070 |
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