Interface Characteristics and Shear Failure of Steel/Lead Bimetallic Structures Fabricated by Droplet-arc Hybrid Additive Manufacturing

doi:10.3969/j.issn.1004-132X.2026.06.003

Abstract

Abstract:

Aiming at the existent problems such as local strap debonding and strength degradation of the adhesively bonded steel/lead bimetallic structures in the field of defense equipment， a novel additive manufacturing method was proposed to fabricate 45 steel/lead alloy bimetallic structures by direct metallurgical connection， which was a combination of droplet deposition-based freeform fabrication and tungsten inert gas（TIG） arc processes. Microstructural characterization and mechanics tests were conducted to evaluate the interfacial bonding quality. The results demonstrate that Fe-Sn/Fe-Sb intermetallic compounds（IMC） formed near the molten pool at the steel/lead interfaces， with IMC thickness nonlinearly decreasing from the pool center to the edge. The molten pool exhibites a peak hardness of 746HV. Tensile-shear specimens fractured on the lead alloy side， indicating superior interfacial bonding with a maximum strength of 49.6 MPa， far exceeding the engineering standard（10 MPa）. Shear failure demonstrates a ductile-brittle mixed fracture mode， with cracks likely initiating at micro-void clusters in the IMC layer and residual stress-concentrated regions.

Key words: arc additive manufacturing, steel/lead bimetallic structure, droplet deposition, intermetallic compound

摘要：

针对目前国防装备领域钢/铅粘接结构存在黏结层易脱落、强度退化等问题，提出一种将熔滴沉积技术与钨极惰性气体（TIG）电弧焊接相结合的熔滴复合电弧增材制造新方法，以实现钢/铅结构的直接冶金结合。为检验钢/铅双金属结构成形试样的界面结合状态，开展了界面组织结构及力学性能表征测试。结果表明，钢/铅界面近熔池区域形成了Fe-Sn/Fe-Sb系金属间化合物（IMC），其IMC厚度从熔池中心向边缘非线性递减，熔池区域硬度峰值达到746HV；拉剪试样断裂位于铅合金侧，表明界面结合优异，最高剪切强度达49.6 MPa，高于工程应用标准（10 MPa）；失效分析发现断口呈现韧-脆性混合断裂特征，裂纹可能萌生于IMC层微孔聚集区以及界面残余应力集中区。

关键词: 电弧增材制造, 钢/铅双金属结构, 熔滴沉积, 金属间化合物

CLC Number:

TG444

LI Zhiqiang, DU Jun, CUI Ao, WAN Zhihao. Interface Characteristics and Shear Failure of Steel/Lead Bimetallic Structures Fabricated by Droplet-arc Hybrid Additive Manufacturing[J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2026, 37(6): 1296-1304.

李志强, 杜军, 崔骜, 万志豪. 熔滴复合电弧增材制造钢/铅双金属结构界面特性与剪切失效分析[J]. 中国机械工程, 2026, 37(6): 1296-1304.

Figures/Tables 18

Fig.1 Process principle and interface structure evolution diagram

Tab.1 Chemical composition of 45 steel and lead alloys （mass fraction）

铅合金	w（Sb）	w（Sn）	w（Cl）	w（Zr）
	10.66	2.93	2.00	0.17
	w（Al）	w（I）	w（Hg）	w（Pb）
	0.85	0.48	0.10	余量
45钢	w（C）	w（Mn）	w（Si）	w（Cu）
	0.45	0.77	0.30	0.03
	w（Ni）	w（Cr）	w（Fe）
	0.01	0.01	余量

Tab.2 Physical properties parameters of 45 steel and lead alloys

物性参数	45钢	铅合金
密度/（kg·m $- 3$ ）	7890	8947
固相温度/℃	1430	230
质量热容/（J·kg $- 1$ ·K $- 1$ ）	502	175
热导率/（W·m $- 1$ ·K $- 1$ ）	44.10	49.60
线膨胀系数/（10 $- 6$ K $- 1$ ）	11.30	25.20
液相温度/℃	1495	230

Tab.2 Physical properties parameters of 45 steel and lead alloys

物性参数	45钢	铅合金
密度/（kg·m $- 3$ ）	7890	8947
固相温度/℃	1430	230
质量热容/（J·kg $- 1$ ·K $- 1$ ）	502	175
热导率/（W·m $- 1$ ·K $- 1$ ）	44.10	49.60
线膨胀系数/（10 $- 6$ K $- 1$ ）	11.30	25.20
液相温度/℃	1495	230

Tab.3 Related process parameters in droplet deposition forming

工艺参数	数值
堆积电流/A	160
堆积电压/V	14.3
电弧效率	0.62
钢基板移动速度/（mm·s $- 1$ ）	6
钢基板初始温度/K	298
铅合金熔滴初始温度/K	685
铅合金熔滴直径/mm	3
铅合金熔滴的冲击速度/（m·s $- 1$ ）	1.4
铅合金熔滴喷射频率/Hz	3

Tab.3 Related process parameters in droplet deposition forming

工艺参数	数值
堆积电流/A	160
堆积电压/V	14.3
电弧效率	0.62
钢基板移动速度/（mm·s $- 1$ ）	6
钢基板初始温度/K	298
铅合金熔滴初始温度/K	685
铅合金熔滴直径/mm	3
铅合金熔滴的冲击速度/（m·s $- 1$ ）	1.4
铅合金熔滴喷射频率/Hz	3

Fig.2 Macrostructure of the steel/lead bimetallic structure

Fig.3 The distribution of elements in different parts of the interface zone of steel/lead bimetal structure

Fig.4 EBSD microstructure in different regions of the steel/lead interface

Fig.5 Fe Sb and Fe Sn phase diagrams［20-21］

Fig.6 Phase composition of different regions at the steel/lead interface

Fig.7 Steel/lead bimetal structure intermetallic compound layer element distribution

Fig.8 Microhardness changes at different positions of the steel/lead interface layer

Fig.9 Tensile shear specimen and fracture morphology

Fig.10 Load displacement curve of tensile shear specimen

Fig.11 Shear fracture of steel/lead bimetallic structure

Fig.12 Microscopic morphology of 45 steel shear section

Fig.13 Element distribution in different areas of 45 steel section

Fig.14 Microscopic morphology of shear section of lead alloy

Fig.15 Element distribution in different regions of lead alloy cross-section

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