State-of-the-art and Trend of High Loading Capacity Plastic Gear Drives

doi:10.3969/j.issn.1004-132X.2025.01.001

Abstract

Abstract: Focusing on the loading capacity and applications in power transmission of plastic gears, the failure modes and loading capacity under the current materials and technology levels were introduced. The strengthening measures for improving loading capacity of plastic gears were elaborated from the application of new materials, lubrication improvement, collaborative design, and so on. The applications and potential of plastic gears scenarios in power transmissions such as automobile engines, vehicle reducers, and aeroengine accessory gearboxes were introduced, which has important reference significance for promoting the development of high load plastic gear technology and applications.

Key words: plastic gear, load carrying capacity, collaborative design, failure mode

摘要： 围绕塑料齿轮承载能力及在动力传动领域应用的问题，介绍了塑料齿轮的失效形式与承载能力，给出了目前的材料与工艺水平下塑料齿轮承载的基础数据，从新材料应用、润滑等工况条件改善、材料结构工况协同设计等方面阐述了提高塑料齿轮承载能力的措施，介绍了高承载塑料齿轮在汽车发动机传动、轻型车辆主传动、小型航发附件机匣传动等动力传动场景的应用实践和潜力。

关键词: 塑料齿轮, 承载能力, 协同设计, 失效形式

CLC Number:

TP182

LIU Huaiju, LU Zehua, ZHU Caichao. State-of-the-art and Trend of High Loading Capacity Plastic Gear Drives[J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2025, 36(01): 2-17.

刘怀举, 卢泽华, 朱才朝. 塑料齿轮传动高承载技术发展与应用[J]. 中国机械工程, 2025, 36(01): 2-17.

References

［1］HACHMAN H, STRICKLE E. Nylon Gears［J］. Konstruktion， 1966, 3(18):81-94.
［2］NIEMANN G, WINTER H. Maschinenelement［M］. Berlin：Springer-Verlag, 1983.
［3］KUROKAWA M, UCHIYAMA Y, NAGAI S. Performance of Plastic Gear Made of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Poly-ether-ether-ketone［J］. Tribology International, 1999, 32(9)：491-497.
［4］HOSKINS T J, DEARN K D, KUKUREKA S N, et al. Acoustic Noise from Polymer Gears—a Tribological Investigation［J］. Materials & Design, 2011, 32(6)：3509-3515.
［5］HASL C, ILLENBERGER C, OSTER P, et al. Potential of Oil-lubricated Cylindrical Plastic Gears［J］. Journal of Advanced Mechanical Design, Systems, and Manufacturing, 2018, 12(1)：JAMDSM0016.
［6］WOOD A K, WILLIAMS V, WEIDIG R. The Relative Performance of Spur Gears Manufactured from Steel and PEEK［J］. Gear Technology, 2012，3(1)：58-65.
［7］LU Zehua, LIU Huaiju, ZHU Caichao, et al. Identification of Failure Modes of a PEEK-Steel Gear Pair under Lubrication［J］. International Journal of Fatigue, 2019, 125：342-348.
［8］YU Guoda, LIU Huaiju, MAO Ken, et al. An Experimental Investigation on the Wear of Lubricated Steel against PEEK Gears［J］. Journal of Tribology, 2020, 142(4)：041702.
［9］LU Zehua, LI Zhenghao, LIU Huaiju, et al. An Accelerated Fatigue Test Method of Polymer Gears Based on Thermostress Conversion Relation［J］. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 2022, 266：108388.
［10］MAO K, CHETWYND D G, MILLSON M. A New Method for Testing Polymer Gear Wear Rate and Performance［J］. Polymer Testing, 2020, 82：106323.
［11］BLAIS P, TOUBAL L. Single-gear-tooth Bending Fatigue of HDPE Reinforced with Short Natural Fiber［J］. International Journal of Fatigue, 2020, 141：105857.
［12］LU Zehua, LIU Huaiju, WEI Peitang, et al. The Effect of Injection Molding Lunker Defect on the Durability Performance of Polymer Gears［J］. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 2020, 180：105665.
［13］ZHONG Bingbing, ZHANG Renhua, WEI Peitang, et al. The Durability Performance of Polyketone Gears under Various Lubrication Conditions［J］. Journal of Tribology, 2022, 144(9)：091203.
［14］ZHONG Bingbing, SONG Hailan, LIU Huaiju, et al. Loading Capacity of POM Gear under Oil Lubrication［J］. Journal of Advanced Mechanical Design, Systems, and Manufacturing, 2022, 16(1)：JAMDSM0006.
［15］CRIPPA G, DAVOLI P. Comparative Fatigue Resistance of Fiber Reinforced Nylon 6 Gears［J］. Journal of Mechanical Design, 1995, 117(1)：193-198.
［16］KODEESWARAN M, VERMA A, SURESH R, et al. Bi-directional and Uni-directional Bending Fatigue Performance of Unreinforced and Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polyamide 66 Spur Gears［J］. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing, 2016, 17(8)：1025-1033.
［17］ZORKO D. Investigation on the High-cycle Tooth Bending Fatigue and Thermo-mechanical Behavior of Polymer Gears with a Progressive Curved Path of Contact［J］. International Journal of Fatigue, 2021, 151：106394.
［18］LANDI L, STECCONI A, MORETTINI G, et al. Analytical Procedure for the Optimization of Plastic Gear Tooth Root［J］. Mechanism and Machine Theory, 2021, 166：104496.
［19］van MELICK I H G H. Tooth-bending Effects in Plastic Spur Gears［J］. Gear Technology, 2007, 8：58-66.
［20］HASL C, LIU Hua, OSTER P, et al. Method for Calculating the Tooth Root Stress of Plastic Spur Gears Meshing with Steel Gears under Consideration of Deflection-induced Load Sharing［J］. Mechanism and Machine Theory, 2017, 111：152-163.
［21］URBAS U, ZORKO D, VUKAINOVIC＇ N. Machine Learning Based Nominal Root Stress Calculation Model for Gears with a Progressive Curved Path of Contact［J］. Mechanism and Machine Theory, 2021, 165：104430.
［22］ZHANG Xiuhua, WEI Peitang, PARKER R G, et al. Study on the Relation between Surface Integrity and Contact Fatigue of Carburized Gears［J］. International Journal of Fatigue, 2022, 165：107203.
［23］张秀华, 刘怀举, 朱才朝, 等. 基于数据驱动的零部件疲劳寿命预测研究现状与发展趋势［J］. 机械传动, 2021, 45(10)：1-14.
ZHANG Xiuhua, LIU Huaiju, ZHU Caizhao, et al. Current Situation and Developing Trend of Fatigue Life Prediction of Components Based on Data-driven［J］. Journal of Mechanical Transmission, 2021, 45(10)：1-14.
［24］CHEN Jie, LIU Yongming. Probabilistic Physics-guided Machine Learning for Fatigue Data Analysis［J］. Expert Systems with Applications, 2021, 168：114316.
［25］CˇERNE B, LORBER R, DUHOVNIK J, et al. Influence of Temperature- and Strain Rate-dependent Viscoplastic Properties of Polyoxymethylene on the Thermo-mechanical Response of a Steel-polyoxymethylene Spur Gear Pair［J］. Materials Today Communications, 2020, 25：101078.
［26］ROTHEMUND M, OTTO M, STAHL K. Applicability of Classic Analytical Calculation Approaches for the Design of Plastic Gears［J］. Forschung Im Ingenieurwesen, 2023, 87(3)：987-995.
［27］胡新磊, 刘怀举, 魏沛堂, 等. 基于标称齿轮当量载荷的聚合物齿轮齿面承载能力评价方法［J］. 中国机械工程, 2023, 34(24)：2927-2935.
HU Xinlei, LIU Huaiju, WEI Peitang, et al. An Evaluation Method for Tooth Surface Load Capacity of Polymer Gears Based on Nominal Gear Equivalent Load［J］. China Mechanical Engineering, 2023, 34(24)：2927-2935.
［28］LU Zehua, LIU Huaiju, ZHANG Renhua, et al. The Simulation and Experiment Research on Contact Fatigue Performance of Acetal Gears［J］. Mechanics of Materials, 2021, 154：103719.
［29］DEARN K D, HOSKINS T J, ANDREI L, et al. Lubrication Regimes in High-performance Polymer Spur Gears［J］. Advances in Tribology, 2013, 2013：987251.
［30］MOHSENZADEH R, SHELESH-NEZHAD K, CHAKHERLOU T N. Experimental and Finite Element Analysis on the Performance of Polyacetal/Carbon Black Nanocomposite Gears［J］. Tribology International, 2021, 160：107055.
［31］ZORKO D, TAVCˇAR J, TURM R, et al. Investigation of the Durability and Performance of Autoclave-cured, Woven Carbon Fiber-reinforced Polymer Composite Gears in Mesh with a Steel Pinion［J］. Composite Structures, 2021, 273：114250.
［32］BRAVO A, TOUBAL L, KOFFI D, et al. Gear Fatigue Life and Thermomechanical Behavior of Novel Green and Bio-composite Materials VS High-performance Thermoplastics［J］. Polymer Testing, 2018, 66：403-414.
［33］ILLENBERGER C M, TOBIE T, STAHL K. Operating Behavior and Performance of Oil-lubricated Plastic Gears［J］. Forschung Im Ingenieurwesen, 2022, 86(3)：557-565.
［34］卢泽华, 刘怀举, 朱才朝, 等. 润滑和载荷状态对聚甲醛齿轮服役性能的影响［J］. 中国机械工程, 2021, 32(17)：2047-2054.
LU Zehua, LIU Huaiju, ZHU Caizhao, et al. Effects of Lubrication and Loading Levels on POM Gear Durability Performance［J］. China Mechanical Engineering, 2021, 32(17)：2047-2054.
［35］吴若, 魏沛堂, 谢怀杰, 等. 喷油润滑聚醚醚酮的接触疲劳性能［J］. 中国机械工程, 2024, 35(2)：221-228.
WU Ruo, WEI Peitang, XIE Huaijie, et al. Contact Fatigue Performance of PEEK under Oil-injected Lubrication［J］. China Mechanical Engineering, 2024, 35(2)：221-228.
［36］HLEBANJA G, HLEBANJA J, OKORN I. Research of Gears with Progressive Path of Contact［C］∥Proceedings of ASME 2000 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. San Diego, 2020：215-221.
［37］LITVIN F L, LIAN Qiming, KAPELEVICH A L. Asymmetric Modified Spur Gear Drives：Reduction of Noise, Localization of Contact, Simulation of Meshing and Stress Analysis［J］. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 2000, 188(1/3)：363-390.
［38］ANAND MOHAN N, SENTHILVELAN S. Preliminary Bending Fatigue Performance Evaluation of Asymmetric Composite Gears［J］. Mechanism and Machine Theory, 2014, 78：92-104.
［39］DEMET S M, ERSOYOGˇLU A S. An Analysis of the Effect of Pressure Angle Change on Bending Fatigue Performance in Asymmetrical Spur Gears［J］. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L：Journal of Materials：Design and Applications, 2021, 235(9)：2142-2150.
［40］KOIDE T, YUKAWA T, TAKAMI S, et al. Tooth Surface Temperature and Power Transmission Efficiency of Plastic Sine-curve Gear［J］. Journal of Advanced Mechanical Design, Systems, and Manufacturing, 2017, 11(6)：JAMDSM0082.
［41］YOON J D, CHA S W, CHONG T H, et al. Study on the Accuracy of Injection Molded Plastic Gear with the Assistance of Supercritical Fluid and a Pressurized Mold［J］. Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering, 2007, 46(9)：815-820.
［42］SOLANKI B, SINGH H, SHEOREY T. Effect of Injection Molding Cycle Time on Shrinkage and Weight of Manufactured Polymer Gear［C］∥ Conference：International Conference on Advancements and Futuristic Trends in Mechanical and Materials Engineering. Punjab, 2022：621-630.
［43］URBAS U, ZORKO D, VUKAINOVIC＇ N, et al. Comprehensive Areal Geometric Quality Characterisation of Injection Moulded Thermoplastic Gears［J］. Polymers, 2022, 14(4)：705.
［44］SENTHILVELAN S, GNANAMOORTHY R. Influence of Reinforcement on Composite Gear Metrology［J］. Mechanism and Machine Theory, 2008, 43(9)：1198-1209.
［45］SENTHILVELAN S, GNANAMOORTHY R. Fiber Reinforcement in Injection Molded Nylon 6/6 Spur Gears［J］. Applied Composite Materials, 2006, 13(4)：237-248.
［46］DRUMMER D, O.KOBES M, MERKEN D, et al. Wie das Spritzgieen den Verschlei bei Zahnrdern Reduziert［J］. Maschinen Markt, 2011, 20：13-19.
［47］ZHANG Ye, PURSSELL C, MAO Ken, et al. A Physical Investigation of Wear and Thermal Characteristics of 3D Printed Nylon Spur Gears［J］. Tribology International, 2020, 141：105953.
［48］ZHANG Ye, MAO Ken, LEIGH S, et al. A Parametric Study of 3D Printed Polymer Gears［J］. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2020, 107(11)：4481-4492.
［49］MENDI F, CAN H, KLEKCI M K. Fatigue Properties of Polypropylene Involute Rack Gear Reinforced with Metallic Springs［J］. Materials & Design, 2006, 27(5)：427-433.
［50］DZCKOGˇLU H. Study on Development of Polyamide Gears for Improvement of Load-carrying Capacity［J］. Tribology International, 2009, 42(8)：1146-1153.
［51］SINGH P K, SIDDHARTHA, SINGH A K. An Investigation on the Effects of the Various Techniques over the Performance and Durability of Polymer Gears［J］. Materials Today：Proceedings, 2017, 4(2)：1606-1614.
［52］GAUNTT S M, CAMPBELL R L. Characterization of a Hybrid (Steel-Composite) Gear with Various Composite Materials and Layups［C］∥AIAA Scitech 2019 Forum. Reston, Virginia, 2019：0146.
［53］SIM E, KIM C, KWAK K S, et al. Optimum Interface Shape and Vibration Test for a New Transmission Helical Gear Composed of Steel and Aramid/Phenol Composite［J］. Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, 2020, 34(4)：1629-1634.
［54］KLEISS R, FERFECKI F J. Designing a Polymer Gear for Use in the Environment of an Internal Combustion Engine［C］∥Proceedings of ASME 2011 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. Washington D C, 2012：515-521.
［55］NITSCH C, HHN B-R, STAHL K. Prospects of Compound-gears for E-mobility Applications Conference on Future Automotive Technology：Focus Electromobility［C］∥Conference on Future Automotive Technology. München, 2013：611-616.
［56］REITSCHUSTER S, ILLENBERGER C M, TOBIE T, et al. Application of High Performance Polymer Gears in Light Urban Electric Vehicle Powertrains［J］. Forschung Im Ingenieurwesen, 2022, 86(4)：683-691.
［57］REITSCHUSTER S, TOBIE T, STAHL K. Experimental Verification of High-performance Polymer Gears in an Electric Vehicle Powertrain［J］. Forschung im Ingenieurwesen, 2023, 87(3)：881-890.
［58］LU Zehua, LIU Chang, LIAO Changjun, et al. Conceptual Design and Optimization of Polymer Gear System for Low-thrust Turbofan Aeroengine Accessory Transmission［J］. Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2023, 11(1)：212-229.
［59］LU Zehua, CHEN Yiming, LIU Huaiju, et al. A High-power-density Design Method for Polymer Gear Systems via an Adaptive Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm Ⅲ and Surrogate Sub-models［J］. Materials & Design, 2024, 240：112875.
［60］CATHELIN J, LETZELTER E, GUINGAND M, et al. Experimental and Numerical Study of a Loaded Cylindrical PA66 Gear［J］. Journal of Mechanical Design, 2013, 135(4)：041007.
［61］MILER D, HOIC＇ M, KEC S, et al. Optimisation of Polymer Spur Gear Pairs with Experimental Validation［J］. Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, 2020, 62(6)：3271-3285.
［62］WU Ruo, WEI Peitang, LU Zehua, et al. A Comparative Study of Fatigue Behavior between S-shaped and Involute POM Gears［J］. Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2022, 9(6)：2483-2494.
［63］TAVCˇAR J, CˇERNE B, DUHOVNIK J, et al. A Multicriteria Function for Polymer Gear Design Optimization［J］. Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2021, 8(2)：581-599.

[1]	WAN Buyan1, 2, PENG Fenfei1, 2, 3, JIN Yongping1, 2, LIU Deshun1, 2, PENG Youduo1, 2. A Review of Mechanics Property Studies of Retracting and Releasing Cables for Marine Exploration Equipment [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2024, 35(09): 1521-1533.
[2]	ZHU Fuxian, QIU Gang, ZHU Xingmin, XU Xianyi, ZHOU Jinyu. Failure Mode and Progressive Damage Analyses of Carbon-glass Hybrid Composite Single Nail and Single Shear Bolted Joints [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2023, 34(23): 2781-2793.
[3]	WU Zijun, XIAO Renbin. A Substructure-based Co-optimization Method for Macro-micro Structures [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2022, 33(23): 2851-2858.
[4]	CONG Jianchen, NI Peixiang, SUN Jun, LYU Shijie. Experimental Research and Analysis on Torsional Fatigue Strength of Engine Crankshafts [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2022, 33(18): 2197-2204.
[5]	YU Guoda, LIU Huaiju, LU Zehua, WEI Peitang. Simulation and Experimental Study of Steady-state Temperature Field of Plastic Gears under Grease Lubrication Conditions#br# [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2022, 33(08): 890-898，907.
[6]	BAI Shuwei, JIANG Nan, TONG Mingbo, CHANG Wenkui. Random Failure Model and Multi-element Damage Assessment of Long Endurance Aircrafts [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2021, 32(22): 2667-2672.
[7]	LU Zehua, LIU Huaiju, ZHU Caichao, YU Guoda, ZHONG Bingbing . Effects of Lubrication and Loading Levels on POM Gear Durability Performance [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2021, 32(17): 2047-2054.
[8]	DENG Yunfei;JIA Huiru;LU Mingjian;ZHANG Yinbo. Experimental Study of Impact Resistance of 2A12 Aluminum Alloy Circular Corrugated Sandwich Plates to Blunt-nosed Projectile [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2021, 32(03): 357-362,367.
[9]	SHEN Jianbang;XIAO Junhua;LIANG Xi;XU Yaoling. Numerical Study on In-plane Impact Dynamics of Negative Poisson's Ratio Honeycomb Structures with Curved Concave Sides [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2020, 31(16): 1998-2004.
[10]	YANG Yonggang;Tian Rui;LU Mingjian;DENG Yunfei. Numerical Simulation Investigation on Ballistic Resistance of Aluminum Alloy Triangle Corrugated Sandwich Plates against Blunt-nosed Projectile Impacts [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2020, 31(09): 1031-1036,1042.
[11]	DENG Yunfei;ZHANG Yong;ZHANG Weiqi;XU Meijian;WANG Lujun. Effects of Fracture Criterion on TC4 Titanium Alloy Plates against Impacts of Ogival-nosed Projectiles [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2019, 30(19): 2378-2384.
[12]	YANG Shiping1;TAN Bosi1;XIA Tianyu1;ZHU Jie2;DING Qiangming2. Research on Reliability of Sliding Bearings of Nuclear Main Pump Motors Based on Small Samples [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2019, 30(15): 1804-1812.
[13]	HU Jing;DENG Yunfei;CUI Yanan;ZHANG Yinbo. Numerical Simulation on Influences of Impact Angles of Blunt-nosed Projectile on Failure Characteristics for 2A12-T4 Aluminum Alloy Plates [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2018, 29(09): 1050-1054,1062.
[14]	SUN Jian, LIU Yawen, GAO Yifeng, ZHAO Qilin, QI Liang. Experimental Ressearch on Mechanics Properties of Composite Pre-tightened Teeth Connection Based on Length Changes of Steel Teeth [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2017, 28(09): 1101-1105,1111.
[15]	LI Yao1;ZHU Caichao1;TAO Youchuan2;SONG Chaosheng1;TAN Jianjun1. Research Status and Development Tendency of Wind Turbine Reliability [J]. China Mechanical Engineering, 2017, 28(09): 1125-1133.